Adjectives and prepositions

A preposition is a word which precedes a noun (or a pronoun) to show the noun’s (or the pronoun’s) relationship to another word in the sentence. (The word preposition comes from the idea of being positioned before. It is not true to say that a preposition always precedes a noun or a pronoun, but it does most of the time.) Prepositions are mostly single words used before a pronoun, noun, noun phrase, or verb to express their relationship with the rest of the sentence. They are used to show when something happens (prepositions of time), where something happens (prepositions of place), or where something is going (prepositions of movement).

The following are all prepositions:

above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, since, to, toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with and within.

Role of a Preposition

Prepositions are important when constructing sentences. A preposition sits before a noun to show the noun’s relationship to another word in the sentence.

Examples:

• It is a container for butter.

(The preposition for shows the relationship between butter and container.)

• The eagle soared above the clouds.

(The preposition above shows the relationship between clouds and soared.)

Pitfalls with Prepositions

For native English speakers, grammatical errors involving prepositions are rare. The most common errors involving prepositions are shown on the right. That said, there are several points to be aware of:

A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition.  The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition.  Thepreposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase.  The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.

Preposition	Object of the Preposition	Prepositional Phrase
to	the store	to the store
by	Bus	by bus
at	three o’clock	at three o’clock
under	the table	under the table

Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible.   Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use.

A preposition can also be a two-word or three-word combination. It is called a compound preposition. Two-word compound prepositions include according to,because of, different from, due to, andinstead of. Some examples of three-word compound prepositions are as far as, in addition to, in front of, and in spite of. There are many more two-word and three-word compound prepositions.

Prepositions of Time:
at two o’clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day

Prepositions of time indicate the period of time that something happens (during, from, since, throughout, until, etc).

Examples:

• She swears never to talk to me again from tomorrow.
• His girlfriend has been missing since last Saturday

Prepositions of time used to indicate a particular time (at, by, in, on, etc)

• I had a big argument with my best friend  at lunchtime.

Prepositions of time used to indicate a particular time in relation to another (after, before, etc)

• I usually brush my teeth after dinner

Prepositions of Place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books

Prepositions of place tell us the position of something (across, in, inside, on, outside, etc)

Example:

• There was a fly on his nose
• The boy went outside to play

Prepositions of place tell us the position of something in relation to another (behind, beside, between, in front, near, etc).

Example:

• I sat beside a dirty man in the bus
• Someone parked a car in front of my house

Preposition of Direction:

These prepositions show direction of movement to somewhere (into, onto, to, etc)

Example:

• A fly got into his soup while he was eating it.
• He went to the cinema

These prepositions show direction of movement from somewhere (away from, from, off, etc)

Example:

• He warned them to keep away from his meat
• He fell off the table

Compound Preposition:

Two-word compound prepositions (according to, aside from, because of, next to, etc).

• According to his brother, he likes noodles.
• Her face was perfect aside from that one hairy mole

Three-word compound prepositions (as far as, in addition to, in front of, in spite of, on account of, etc)

• The explosion could be heard as far as the police station, which is five kilometers away

He can’t sing any more on account of his failing health

 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that is used to describe and modify a noun. It tells us more about the noun. We can identify adjectives in words by knowing their features i.e. the descriptive feature of an adjective to a noun and also the modification.

Types of Adjectives

There are different types of adjectives in English. These are:

Adjectives of Quality: These adjectives are used to describe the nature of a noun. They give an idea about the characteristics of the noun by answering the question ‘what kind’.

Examples: A beautiful day, A good girl.

Adjectives of Quantity: These adjectives help to show the amount or the approximate amount of the noun or pronoun. These adjectives do not provide exact numbers; rather they tell us the amount of the noun in relative or whole terms. e.g. All, Half, Many, Few, Little, No, Enough, Great

Examples: There are few books on the shelf

Many people came to the fair

Adjectives of Number: These adjectives are used to show the number of nouns and their place in an order. There are three different sections within adjectives of number; they are –

Definite Numeral Adjective – Those which clearly denote an exact number of nouns or the order of the noun.

One, Two, Twenty, Thirty-Three etc. also known as Cardinals.

First, Second, Third, Seventh etc. also known as Ordinals.

Indefinite Numeral Adjective – Those adjectives that do not give an exact numerical amount but just give a general idea of the amount.

Some, Many, Few, Any, Several, All etc.

E.g.: There were many people present at the meeting.

Distributive Numeral Adjective – Those adjectives that are used to refer to individual nouns within the whole amount.

Either, Neither, Each, Another, Other etc.

Taxes have to be paid by every employed citizen.

Adjective of Size: These adjectives  tell you about the size of the noun, they can be used for an object as well as living things.

Examples: A big rat, A short ladder

Adjective of Age: These are Adjectives that tell about the age of a noun either by itself or in relation to another noun.

e.g. Young, Old, Teenage, Mature

Examples: A young man, An old car

Adjective of Temperature: A warm evening, A hot bath

Adjective of Shape: These adjectives tell about the shape or appearance of the noun.

e.g. Circular, Crooked, Triangular

Examples: A square table, A round box

Adjective of Colour: These are the adjectives that tell about the shade and hue of a noun.

e.g. Pastel, Red, Blue, Metallic, Colourless

Examples: A red shirt, A colourless  liquid

Adjective of Origin: These are adjectives that tell the geographical location of a noun.

Examples: A french car, A chinese watch

Descriptive Adjectives

The most common type of adjective is the descriptive adjective. These are simply words that help to describe nouns. They can be colours, sizes, or other describing words.

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives are like possessive pronouns, but act as adjectives. They are: my, your, its, our, and their. They demonstrate a relationship of ownership. In the examples below, the possessive adjectives are in red. The nouns they modify are in blue. Remember: it’s an adjective if it comes with the noun; it’s a pronoun if it replaces the noun.

It is my ball.

Demonstrative Adjectives

Demonstrative Adjectives are identical to demonstrative pronouns, but are used for a different purpose. The demonstrative adjectives are: this, that, those, and what. In the following sentences the demonstrative adjectives are in red and the nouns they modify are in blue.

Take this job and shove it..

Interrogative Adjectives

Another type of adjective is the interrogative adjective. Interrogative adjectives include the words which and what. In the following sentences the interrogative adjectives are in red and the nouns they modify are in blue.

Which company do you want to invest in?

Indefinite Adjectives

It’s an adjective that’s not definite. Too vague? How about a word like “some” or “many.” Getting clearer?

1. Some people wanted to buy stocks.
2. Many people wanted to buy bonds.
3. A few people wanted to buy gold.
4. Why indefinite? Because it’s not exactly clear how many or who.
5. Features of Letters

Letter Writing: When writing a semi-formal letter, you must observe certain steps. Take note of the following points in Mary’s letter-https://googleads.g.doubleclick.net/pagead/ads?guci=2.2.0.0.2.2.0.0&client=ca-pub-1661929042807246&output=html&h=280&slotname=9757662299&adk=2557067144&adf=1730767542&pi=t.ma~as.9757662299&w=700&fwrn=4&fwrnh=100&lmt=1605006555&rafmt=1&psa=1&format=700×280&url=http%3A%2F%2Fstoplearn.com%2Fcourses%2Fsecondary-school%2Fjss3-third-term-english-language-junior-secondary-school%2Flessons%2Fadjectives-and-prepositions%2F&flash=0&fwr=0&fwrattr=true&rpe=1&resp_fmts=3&wgl=1&adsid=ChEIgJGp_QUQ9tCqhN3dyr_CARJIAPClIFPQDtm8ktLyQuP_xGXn2EpzX4XXRSXTnx2Btu1toBXrW4QxI1ICiSHKIsCxI2mOvLz1TuRajC9gfgV_xguxa1cxkT5p&dt=1605006506492&bpp=6&bdt=130&idt=72&shv=r20201104&cbv=r20190131&ptt=9&saldr=aa&abxe=1&cookie=ID%3D3b5c0a4b352ccd7b-2255262b41a60032%3AT%3D1602230088%3ART%3D1602230088%3AS%3DALNI_MaWUG7yiaaHthyGgrREyU5I0uWdRw&prev_fmts=0x0%2C1200x90_0ads_al&nras=1&correlator=1333253420603&frm=20&pv=1&ga_vid=83959474.1605006507&ga_sid=1605006507&ga_hid=2081643162&ga_fc=0&iag=0&icsg=599886135210&dssz=58&mdo=0&mso=0&u_tz=60&u_his=17&u_java=0&u_h=768&u_w=1366&u_ah=728&u_aw=1366&u_cd=24&u_nplug=3&u_nmime=4&adx=609&ady=726&biw=1518&bih=730&scr_x=0&scr_y=0&eid=21067467&oid=3&psts=AGkb-H-Xu9bD1pkspa2-q6oAOd6l61FhVhpvo1u5oVweGx3ZbtIQGF2c2A&pvsid=1598493777781864&pem=804&ref=http%3A%2F%2Fstoplearn.com%2Fcourses%2Fsecondary-school%2Fjss3-third-term-english-language-junior-secondary-school%2Flessons%2Fadverbs-and-verbs%2F&rx=0&eae=0&fc=896&brdim=0%2C0%2C0%2C0%2C1366%2C0%2C1366%2C728%2C1517%2C730&vis=1&rsz=%7C%7CaoeE%7C&abl=CA&pfx=0&fu=8320&bc=31&jar=2020-11-10-10&ifi=1&uci=a!1&fsb=1&xpc=zM33jlI1yg&p=https%3A//stoplearn.com&dtd=49093

1. The address and date: Notice the position and layout of the address. Here are some examples of the way dates should be written:
   1st February, 2007  2nd May, 2006  3rd July, 2009
2. The salutation: We usually start letters with Dear….
   Note that in more affectionate forms: My dear Lizzy, the word dear does not start with capital letter (Compare Dear Elizabeth)
3. The body of the letter: The letter is laid out in well-organised paragraphs. There is an indentation at the beginning of each paragraph. Remember, marks are awarded for sensible paragraphing.
4. The style of the letter: The language of the letter is semi-formal: it is very like ordinary speech, but a little more grammatical. The semi-formal features of the letter include the following. Can you find some examples in the letter?

• Informal expressions like don’t panic, etc
• Contracted forms like I’m and here’s.
• The use of dashes and Exclamation marks.

5. Ending the letter: The last paragraph of a letter should ’round it off’ in a suitable way, and send greetings. The usual way of signing off is with the phrase Yours sincerelyand your signature.
6. The signature: With semi-formal letter and informal letter, you just write your given name. You do not print your full name under the signature in semi-formal or informal letters – they know who you are!

Mary’s Letter

Informal Letter

Note these points about Tokunbo’s Letter

1. The address and date: Notice the position and layout of the address. Here are some examples of the way dates should be written:
   1st February, 2009  2nd March, 2006  3rd April, 2012
2. The salutation: We usually start letters with Dear…. and this begins with a capital letter.
   Use first name when writing an informal letter.
   Note that in more affectionate forms: My dear Lizzy, the word dear does not start with capital letter (Compare Dear Elizabeth)
3. The body of the letter: The letter is laid out in well-organised paragraphs. Each one has a topic. Marks are awarded for sensible paragragphing; In this letter, there are five paragraphs.  There is an identation at the beginning of each paragraph. Decide which paragraph has the following topics:

• Offer of help
• Expressing sympathy
• What the writer knows
• Communications
• Concluding attempts to cheer Harriet up

4. The style of the letter: The language of the letter is informal: it is very like ordinary speech, but a little more grammatical. The informal features of the letter include the following. Can you find another example in the letter?

• Informal expressions like drop it in, (paragraph 3)
• Contracted forms like I’m (paragraph 3)

5. Ending the letter: The last paragraph of a letter tries to ’round it off’ in a suitable way, – in this case, Tokunbo tries to cheer Harriet up. A common feature of such letters is the one-liner at the end, which adds a personal touch. Other possible one-liners in this context could have been:
   God bless! Please don’t get too depressed
   Much love!
   Look after yourself, etc.

With informal letters (and even some formal letters when the writer is known to you) it is always safe to end Yours sincerely (on a separate line – capital Y small s).
Depending on your relationship, other possibilities include: Yours ever and Much Love.

6. The signature: With informal letter, you just write your given name. You do not print your full name under the signature in  informal letter- they know who you are without that!

Tokunbo’s Letter

Informal Letter

Informal Introductions

Sometimes we wear smart clothes, and sometimes we wear casual clothes.

When would you wear

• very smart clothes? (formal clothes)
• casual clothes? (informal  clothes)

It is the same thing with language. We use different words on different occasions.

In threes, read the dialogue below. Betty and Amy are friends. Decide

• who is talking to whom
• on what sort of an occasion they are talking

Dialogue 1: Hi Amy! Have you met Philly? She’s the cleverest student in the class. But don’t ask her how she does it!
Dialogue 2: Hi, Philly. Nice to meet you!
Dialogue 3: Nice to meet you, Amy. I’ve heard a lot of about you
Dialogue 4: Don’t believe a word of it!

When we introduce people to each other, we have two main jobs:

1. To convey important information about the people to each other.
2. To put everyone at their ease.

This means that we should mention both names clearly. In addition, it is helpful to include an interesting or important fact about each person. This helps them to build a conversation with each other.

For example:

• She/He is one of my oldest friends.
• He was the goalkeeper in yesterdays match.
• I believe you met her cousin in Enugu last month

Useful Expressions:

I’d like you to meet … He′s from….
Have you met my friend…? She′s …
I’d like to introduce…, who is….
Have you two met? Fela, meet Eze. Eze, this is fela.
Summary of Informal and Semi-formal Letters

Informal Letter

1. Your address

Top right hand corner, properly punctuated with full stops and commas

2. Addressee

Do NOT include the name, position and address of the addressee

3. Date

Below your address, you may follow either style as of formal letters

4. Salutation

Depending on the circumstances and relationship,  Dear (first name/nickname) is appropriate

5. Subject of the letter

Omit

6. Body of the letter

Paragraphs should be indented. The style should be appropriate: use colloquial language, abbreviations, jokes etc

7. Complimentary Close

This goes at the bottom of the letter. Yours sincerely is always acceptable, followed by your name or nickname. Variations are possible for very close relationships e.g. Your friend, Your sister, Lots of love, etc.

Semi Formal Letter

1. Your address

Top right hand corner, properly punctuated with full stops and commas

2. Addressee

Do NOT include the name, position and address of the addressee

3. Date

Below your address, you may follow either style as of formal letters

4. Salutation

Depending on the relationship, any of the following might be appropriate: Dear Mr/Dr/Mrs (name), Dear (first name)

5. Subject of the letter

Omit

6. Body of the letter

Paragraphs should be indented. The style should be appropriate for semi-formal letters.

7. Complimentary Close

This goes at the bottom of the letter. Yours sincerely is always acceptable, followed by your name.

Assessment

Identify and name the types of Adjective in the following sentences

1. How much rise do you want to buy?
2. Those girls are wayward
3. Tolu has five red balls
4. I gave Chika my lunch
5. The fat man couldn’t walk through the tiny door
6. The English man paid 5 pennies for a cup of black coffee
7. The heavy blue round box was placed on the light table
8. The big fat black man ran as fast as his strong legs could carry him at the sound of  gun fire
9. The faithful dog brought back his master’s brown book

Answers

1. How – Interrogative Adj
2. Those – Demonstrative Adj
3. Five, Red – Descriptive Adj
4. My – Possessive Adj
5. Fat, Tiny – Adj of size
6. English -Adj of origin, 5 – Adjective of number, black – Adj of colour
7. Heavy – Adj of size, blue – Adj of colour, round – Adj of shape
8. Big – Adj of size, Fat – Adj of size, Black – Adj of colour, strong – Adj of Quality
9. Faithful – Adj of Quality, Brown – Adj of colour.