Hyperbole is derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.

It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait.

Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize.

Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally. Hyperbole are exaggerations to create emphasis or effect.

Examples

• My grandmother is as old as the hills.
• I was so hungry; i could eat a horse
• She is as heavy as an elephant!
• I have told you a million times to help with the housework
• I could sleep for a year; i was so tired
• I am dying of shame.
• I am trying to solve a million issues these day

 Reported Speech: Orders, Requests & Suggestions

When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like ‘tell’ with a to-clause: He told me to go away. The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. The indirect object is the person spoken to. Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, & forbid.

Examples

Requests for Objects

Requests for objects are reported using the pattern “asked for” + object.

Examples

Suggestions

Suggestions are most often reported using the verbs suggest, insist, recommend, demand, request, and propose followed by a that clause. ‘That’ and ‘should’ are optional in these clauses, as shown in the first two examples below. Note that suggest, recommend, and propose may also be followed by a gerund in order to eliminate the indirect object (the receiver of the suggestion) and thus make the suggestion more polite. This usage of the gerund is illustrated in the fourth and fifth examples below.

Examples

Exercise

1. What do you understand by a figure of speech?
2. Explain the hyperbole as a figure of speech.
3. Give five examples of the hyperbole.
4. In a reported speech, what is the best way to report an order or a request? Explain with an example.

What are Tenses?

Tenses are forms of a verb that show the time, continuance or completion of an action or a state that is expressed in connection with the moment at which a statement is made about it. The following tenses are commonly used:

1. Present Tense 

Simple Present Tense

We use the simple present tense:

• To show a fact or something that is always true.

Examples

• The heart pumps blood through the body.
• A doctor treats patients.
• Babies cry.

• For daily routines or something done regularly or habitually.

Examples:

• I never work on weekends.
• I do exercise every morning.
• She goes to church on Sundays.

• For an action that is planned to happen in the future.

Examples:

• The train for Apapa departs at seven o’clock.
• The meeting begins in an hour’s time.

• To express thoughts, feelings and states.

Examples:

• They feel a lot of loyalty to the company.
• Joke doubts the truth of  Damilare’s statement.

• For sports, commentaries, reviews (book, film, play, etc.) and narration.

Examples:

• She plays her role marvelously.
• The witch suddenly appears out of nowhere and whacks him with the broom.

• In newspaper headlines.

Examples:

• President Jonathan leave Aso Rock.
• General Buhari, the new Nigerian President.

• for instructions, directions.

Examples:

• Mix the flour and water together, then add sugar.
• Go straight on and when you come to the first traffic lights, turn left.

• with the following time expressions: all the time, at night/the weekend, every day/week/month/year, in the morning/afternoon/evening, on Mondays/Tuesday, etc., once/twice a day/week, etc.

Examples:

• He beats the dog all the time.
• Busola often visits passnownow.com every evening.

Present Continuous Tense

We use the present continuous tense to show we are in the middle of an activity that is in progress at this moment. The activity started in the past and will go on in the future.

Example:

• I am praying / I’m writing.

So when we use the present continuous tense we are talking about something that is still on  and not yet finished or complete at the time of speaking.

Forming the Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous tense of any verb is formed with the simple present tense of the verb to be (=am, is, are) and the present participle of the main verb (verb + ing)

Examples:

• I am riding a bicycle to the market.
• Micheal is walking out after a row with his girlfriend.

We use the present continuous tense:

• For an action that is still happening at the time of speaking.

Example:

• She is cooking noodles now.

• For an action that is still going on about this time but not necessary at the time of speaking.

Example:

• Joke is teaching at a secondary girls’ school. (She is not actually teaching now. She may be watching television or playing with his cat at the moment of speaking.)

• to talk about an action that has been planned or arranged to take place at a particular time in the immediate or distant future.

Example:

• We are going for excursion in two weeks.

• To describe a situation that is temporary and does not happen as usual.

Example:

• He is usually the hero of the film, but he is playing the role of a villain.

• To describe a repeated action that the speaker finds irritating.

Example:

• He is always making me angry with his rude comments.

• with ‘always’, ‘very often’, ‘forever’, ‘constantly’ to describe an action that happens many times or frequently.

Example:

• My old car is always breaking down.
• I very often go to my mum’s house for food.

With present continuous tense questions, we use: am/are/is + subject + …ing. E.g. Am I angry? What are your cats doing in my garden? Is your dog barking at the postman?

We use the present continuous tense in the following ways:

• Statement: I am eating – we place the verb to be (am/is/are) after the subject (I).
• Negative: He is not reading – we place not after the verb to be (am/is/are).
• Question: Are they coming here? – we place the verb to be (am/is/are) before the subject (they).

Present Perfect Tense

The Present Perfect Tense connects the present to the past. It describes an action that happened in the past and goes right to the present moment. The time of occurrence of the action is not mentioned. Usually, the time is not important or is not necessary to know. It is the result of the action that matters. It tells us the outcome to date of the action. E.g., “Frank has gone” tell us that Frank is no longer with us.

To express something in the present perfect tense, join the present simple tense of have/has with the past participle of the main verb (which can be a regular verb or irregular verb).

have/has + past participle

e.g.

Tolu has taken my Pen.

They have eaten rice

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is made up of the present perfect tense of the verb to be (have/has been), and the present participle of the main verb (verb + ing)

The Present Perfect Continuous is:

• Used for an action that began in the past and has been continuing up to now (and may still be going on)

Example:

• Bobola and Osas have been talking about getting married.

• Used for an action that began and just finished in the past.

Example:

• “Look how dirty your hands are.” “Yes, I have been washing the dishes.”

• Often used with since, for, ever since, etc.

Examples:

• Grandpa has been playing with his grandchildren for hours.
• I have been looking for my glasses since ten o’clock.

• Also used with all (all day, all evening, all week) to indicate duration of an activity, lately, etc.

Examples:

• He has been suffering from headache all day.
• I‘ve been feeling ill lately.

• Used with how long to form questions.

Example:

• How long have you been studying English?

1. Past Tense

Simple Past Tense

We use the simple past tense for events that happened or started and completed in the past and that have no relation with the present.

We use the simple past tense:

• to describe an action that occurred in the past or at a specified time or the time is easily understood or already implied.

Example: We finished our breakfast an hour ago. (NOT: We have/had finished our breakfast an
hour ago.)
Example: My brother played soccer for Chelsea two weeks ago.

• for an action that began and ended in the past.

Example: The dangerous criminal was recaptured after three months on the run.

• to refer to an action completed regardless of how recent or distant in the past.

Example: Alexander Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
Example: My brother joined the circus as a clown last week

Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is formed with the past tense of the verb to be (was/were) + present participle (verbs ending in …ing).

The past continuous tense questions are formed with was/were + subject + … ing.
Example: What wereyou doing exactly twenty-four hours ago? (NOT: What did you do exactly
twenty-four hours ago?)

The past continuous Tense is used:

• for an action that was taking place in the past when a shorter action (expressed in the simple past tense) happened.

E.g.: I was running when I got hit by a stone.
E.g.: While he was reading his textbook, he fell asleep.
Note: The past continuous tense and the simple past tense are used together

• with while to describe two actions that were going on at the same time in the past.

Example: While my brother was laughing, the dog was barking.

The past perfect tense is formed with the past tense of the verb to have (had) and the past participle of the verb (e.g. eaten, stolen, taken).

Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense describes an event that happened in the past before another event  was completed in the past. It tells us which event happened first regardless of which event is mentioned first or second in a sentence or conversation.

The Past Perfect Tense is used:
1. to show an action happened in the past before another event took place.

• Words usually used with the Past Perfect tense are when and after.

Example: They had already left the zoo before I got there.
Example: When he had done his homework, he went for a smoke in the park.
In each of the above examples there are two past actions. The past perfect tense is combined with a past simple tense to show which of the two actions happened earlier.
The event in the past perfect tense occurred before the event in the simple past tense.

• Words such as already, just and as soon as are also used with the Past Perfect tense.

Example: It had already stopped raining when I bought an umbrella.
Example: As soon as she bought the fruit, she regretted it.
2. for an action which happened before a definite time in the past.
Example: They had finished their meals by 7:00pm.

3. for states.
   Example: They had becomegood friends for many years after meeting on holiday.

When two actions were completed in the past, use a past perfect tense to clarify which event happened earlier.
a) INCORRECT: The bank occupied the building where the bakery was.
b) CORRECT: The bank occupied the building where the bakery had been.
c) INCORRECT: The list of movies you showed me, I saw before.
d) CORRECT: The list of movies you showed me, I had seen before.
In (a), the use of two simple past tenses (occupied; was) imply the bank and bakery occupied the same building at the same time, which was not the case. In (b), the use of the perfect tense (had been) sorts out the order of occupation of the building.
In (c), ‘I saw before’ clearly indicates it happened before the list was showed to me, and so should be in the past perfect tense as in (d).

Before and After
As mentioned above, the event expressed in the past perfect tense occurred earlier than the event in the past simple tense. However, when before or after is used in a sentence, the past perfect tense becomes unnecessary as the two words – before or after – already clarify which action takes place first. We can use the simple past tense instead. Look at these examples.

1. a) After shehad read the letter, she tore it into pieces.
   b) After sheread the letter, she tore it into pieces.
   c) We had left the cinema before the movie ended.
   d) We left the cinema before the movie ended.
   Changing the past perfect tense to past simple tense does not affect the meaning of the sentences as (a) and (b) have the same meaning, and (c) and (d) have the same meaning.

The past perfect tense and the present perfect tense
The rice bowl was empty. I had eaten the rice.
The rice bowl is empty. I have eaten the rice.
Anna was limping. She had fallen down the stairs.
Anna is limping. She has fallen down the stairs.

Indirect speech
The Past Perfect Tense is often used in Reported or Indirect Speech. It is used in place of the verb in the:

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

The past perfect continuous tense is formed with the past perfect tense of the verb to be (= had been) + the present participle (–ing).

Example: I had beensinging.

The past perfect continuous is used:

• for an action that occurred over a period of time in the past.

Example: He had been playing drums in the church choir.

• for an action which started and finished in the past before another past action. Here, since or for is usually used.

Example: Jack got a job at last. He had been looking for a job since last year.
Example: He and his brother had been playing badminton together for ten years before one of them got married.

• in reported speech, the present perfect continuous tense becomes past perfect continuous tense.

Example: John said, “We have been traveling by train across Europe.”
Example: John said they had been traveling by train across Europe.

III. FUTURE TENSE

Simple Future Tense

We use the simple future tense for actions that will happen in the future. How we use it depends on how we view the events are going to happen. The followings show the different tenses used to express the completion of an activity in the future:

The FBI will conclude their investigation of the internet scam next week. (simple future)
The FBI conclude their investigation of the internet scam next week. (simple present)
The FBI are concluding their investigation of the internet scam next week.(present continuous)
The FBI will be concluding their investigation of the internet scam next week. (future continuous)

Determiners

Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general.

The definite article

The word “the” is one of the most common words in English. It is our only definite article. Nouns in English are preceded by the definite article when the speaker believes that the listener already knows what he is referring to. The speaker may believe this for many different reasons, some of which are listed below.

When to use “the”

General rules

Use the to refer to something which has already been mentioned.

Examples

• On Monday, an unarmed man stole $1,000 from the bank. The thief hasn’t been caught yet.
• I was walking past Benny’s Bakery when I decided to go into the bakery to get some bread.
• There’s a position available in my team. The job will involve some international travel.

Use the when you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been mentioned before.

Examples

• We went on a walk in the forest yesterday.
• Where is the bathroom?
• Turn left and go to number 45. Our house is across from the Italian restaurant.
• My father enjoyed the book you gave him.

Use the in sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular person or object.

Examples

• The man who wrote this book is famous.
• I scratched the red car parked outside.
• I live in the small house with a blue door.
• He is the doctor I came to see.

Use the to refer to people or objects that are unique.

Examples

• The sun rose at 6:17 this morning.
• You can go anywhere in the world.
• Clouds drifted across the sky.
• The president will be speaking on TV tonight.
• The CEO of Total is coming to our meeting.

Use the before superlatives and ordinal numbers.

Examples

• This is the highest building in New York.
• She read the last chapter of her new book first.
• You are the tallest person in our class.
• This is the third time I have called you today.

Use the with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people.

Examples

• The French enjoy cheese.
• The elderly require special attention.
• She has given a lot of money to the poor.

Use the with decades.

Examples

• He was born in the seventies.
• This is a painting from the 1820’s.

Use the with clauses introduced by only

Examples

• This is the only day we’ve had sunshine all week.
• You are the only person he will listen to.
• The only tea I like is black tea.

Proper nouns

Use the with names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, canals, and oceans.

Examples

• They are travelling in the Arctic.
• Our ship crossed the Atlantic in 7 days.
• I will go on a cruise down the Nile.
• Hiking across the Rocky Mountains would be difficult.

Use the with countries that have plural names

Examples

• I have never been to the Netherlands.
• Do you know anyone who lives in the Philippines?

Use the with countries that include the words “republic”, “kingdom”, or “states” in their names.

Examples

• She is visiting the United States.
• James is from the Republic of Ireland.

Use the with newspaper names.

Examples

• I read it in the Guardian.
• She works for the New York Times.

Use the with the names of famous buildings, works of art, museums, or monuments.

Examples

• Have you been to the Vietnam Memorial?
• We went to the Louvre and saw the Mona Lisa.
• I would like to visit the Eiffel Tower.
• I saw King Lear at the Globe.

Use the with the names of hotels & restaurants, unless these are named after a person.

Examples

• They are staying at the Hilton on 6th street.
• We ate at the Golden Lion.

Use the with the names of families, but not with the names of individuals.

Examples

• We’re having dinner with the Smiths tonight.
• The Browns are going to the play with us.

When not to use “the”

Do not use the with names of countries (except for the special cases above).

Examples

• Germany is an important economic power.
• He’s just returned from Zimbabwe.

Do not use the with the names of languages.

Examples

• French is spoken in Tahiti.
• English uses many words of Latin origin.
• Indonesian is a relatively new language.

Do not use the with the names of meals.

Examples

• Lunch is my favorite meal.
• I like to eat breakfast early.

Do not use the with people’s names.

Examples

• John is coming over later.
• Mary Carpenter is my boss.

Do not use the with titles when combined with names.

Examples

• Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth’s son.
• President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.

Do not use the after the ‘s possessive case

Examples

• His brother’s car was stolen.
• Peter’s house is over there.

Do not use the with professions

Examples

• Engineering is a well-paid career.
• He’ll probably study medicine.

Do not use the with names of shops

Examples

• I’ll get the card at Smith’s.
• Can you go to Boots for me?

Do not use the with years

Examples

• 1948 was a wonderful year.
• He was born in 1995.

Do not use the with uncountable nouns

Examples

• Rice is an important food in Asia.
• Milk is often added to tea in England.
• War is destructive.

Do not use the with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands

Examples

• Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska.
• She lives near Lake Windermere.
• Have you visited Long Island?

Do not use the with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports

Examples

• Victoria Station is in the centre of London.
• Can you direct me to Bond Street?
• She lives in Florence.
• They’re flying into Europe.

Indefinite Articles

In English, the two indefinite articles are a and an. Like other articles, indefinite articles are invariable. You use one or the other, depending on the first letter of the word following the article, for pronunciation reasons. Use a when the next word starts with a consonant, or before words starting in u and eu when they sound like you. Use an when the next word starts with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) or with a mute h.

Examples

• a boy
• an apple
• a car
• a helicopter
• an elephant
• a big elephant
• an itchy sweater
• an ugly duck
• a european
• a university
• a unit
• an hour
• an honor

The indefinite article is used to refer to something for the first time or to refer to a particular member of a group or class. Some usage cases and examples are given below.

Use a to refer to something for the first time.

Examples

• Would you like a drink?
• I’ve finally got a good job.
• An elephant and a mouse fell in love.

Naming members of a group

Use a with names of jobs.

Examples

• John is a doctor.
• Mary is training to be an engineer.
• He wants to be a dancer.

Use a with nationalities and religions in the singular.

Examples

• John is an English man.
• Kate is a Catholic.

Use a with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day.

Examples

• I was born on a Thursday.
• Could I come over on a Saturday sometime?

Use a to refer to an example of something.

Examples

• The mouse had a tiny nose .
• The elephant had a long trunk .
• It was a very strange car .

Use a with singular nouns after the words ‘what’ and ‘such’.

Examples

• What a shame !
• She’s such a beautiful girl .
• What a lovely day !

Use a which means ‘one’, refers to a single object or person, or a single unit of measure. In some sentences in which “one” is used instead of the indefinite article is grammatically correct. It will add emphasis to the number, and contrast with other numbers.

Examples

• I’d like an orange and two lemons please.
• I’d like one orange and two lemons please.
• The burglar took a diamond necklace and some valuable paintings.
• I can think of a hundred reasons not to come.
• I need a kilogram of sugar.
• I need one kilogram of sugar.
• You can’t run a mile in 5 minutes!

Determiners of difference

The determiners other and another refer to something different, remaining, or additional. They are placed before a noun. The other is treated separately because its usage is slightly different.

Using “Other”

Other can come after the determiners some, any, and no.

Examples

• Do you have other shoes?
• There are other jobs you could try.
• Is there any other bread?
• I have some other sugar we could use.
• We have no other ideas.

If used with a plural countable noun and one of these determiners, the noun may be omitted when it is understood from the context. In that case, other becomes plural. This can also happen with other used by itself, but it is less common.

Examples

• Do you have any others?
• I know some others who might like to come.
• There are no others in this box.
• I know others like vanilla, but I prefer chocolate.
• She doesn’t have to wear that dress. She has others.

Using “Another”

Another is used with singular countable nouns. For uncountable nouns, another is often used with measure words that are singular.

Examples

• Have another cookie.
• Would you like another cup of tea?
• He has another brother.
• I don’t have another car.
• I’ll come by another time.

Using “The Other”

If ‘the other‘ is modifying a plural countable noun, the noun may be omitted when it is understood from the context. In that case, other will become plural.

Examples

• Where is the other box of cereal?
• I work on the weekend and go to school on the other days of the week.
• May I use the other honey for my recipe?
• I enjoyed the first book but I didn’t read the other books in the series.
• Have you seen the others?
• Jim ate two cookies. I ate the others.

Pre-determiners

Pre-determiners are normally placed before an indefinite article + adjective + noun to express an opinion about the noun they modify. Such and what are used to express surprise or other emotions.

Examples

• What a lovely day!
• She’s such a beautiful woman.
• You can’t imagine what an incredible meal I just ate.
• I’ve had such a good time today!

Rather and quite are commenting words, referring to the degree of a particular quality as expressed by the adjective that modifies the noun. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or other emotions depending on the adjective in question. In British English, rather is used as a pre-determiner. In American English it is only used as an adverb. The examples given below are British English.

Examples

• It was quite a nice day.
• He’s had quite a bad accident.
• It’s rather a small car.
• I’ve just met rather a nice man.

 Exercise

1. The past perfect tense is often used in reported speech and indirect speech; explain.
2. What are tenses?
3. Differentiate between the present tense, present continuous tense and present perfect tense.
4. What is the past continuous tense used for? Give examples.
5. Discuss the past tense.